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Næniusk
Begonian is the English name for this conlang. Setting (First draft, not necessarily coherent yet LOL) Næniusk (endonym) is the official language of Begonia, one of 33 countries of a fictional seventh 21st-century continent. Each of these countries is thought to represent now-former classmates. Those people who are in “cliques” are thought to have languages related to each other and form a genealogic family. Which is why Næniusk has the status of an isolate (*forever alone*). Many Begonian words can be considered loanwords from languages of neighboring countries, especially for completely unknown concepts for the Begonian community such as "extrovertism, friend", etc. Begonia itself is situated in the northeast of this continent with subarctic climate, approximately 4,5 to 5 million inhabitants with two major cities and economic centres called Kargana (capital, ~480k people) and Byrnu '''(~550k). The country has been first settled in the late 8th century and was first mentioned some 300 years later as the result of the merging of two minor states called Kargis and Byran (hence the city names) – nowadays there’s a mostly friendly rivalry between those two, especially visible in sport competitions. During the late Medieval age until the 17th century Begonian armed forces fought a violent war against attackers from '''Hattuku, which was eventually won and integrated into the country. Hattukan language stood out by having an elaborate set of ejectives and pharyngealized sounds, which influenced the Begonian language and were for a short time integrated as separate phonemes, but relatively quickly dropped – however voiceless plosives may appear geminate in writing (only ones to do so within the same morpheme) which still points to this. Also many dialects kept pharyngealization and a bunch of other distinctive features in the region of back-then Hattuku. (flag, coat of arms and map to be added soon) Desired Aesthetics Næniusk is aimed to be a fusion of North Germanic Scandinavian languages, Turkish, Basque and some own ideas. Whether that’s reality, I dunno. Phonology Consonants Allophony *Earlier stages of Begonian used phonemic ejectives. This is still visible in modern-day writing, as voiceless plosives can appear geminate in writing within the same morpheme – this however has no effect on pronounciation. The alveolo-palatal ejective was often realized as ç’ or sometimes ɕ’, x’ or χ’, which has retained in some dialects for <ṭṭ> and < kk >. *Plosives and affricates tend to be aspirated if word-initial or in a stressed syllable, preaspirated if following vowels and unaspirated when in the environment of consonants or at the end of a word. There’s a more detailed description regarding aspiration further below. */xʷ~ʍ/ has a variety of graphemic representations other than < ẋ >: < sk, skj, stj, tj, chj, gw, xw > *f and v only appear in loanwords and are usually replaced by /ʋ/, /ð/ and/or /θ/. *An epenthetic ɦ is added between words ending/beginning with vowels. Historic Development Above is the phonemic inventory of Old Begonian: #The palatalized alveolar series has shifted into alveolo-palatal; palatalized r, l and voiceless l were lost on the way. #The retroflex series has moved to post-alveolar; the plosives were lost on the way. #The bilabial fricatives have shifted over labio-dental to dental. #The labio-dental voiced fricative has changed into an approximant. #The coarticulated palatal-velar fricative has changed into a labialized velar fricative and/or voiceless labio-velar approximant. (free variation) #The alveolar trill and flap have merged. Furthermore, the Begonian phoneme inventory also included ejectives and pharyngealized vowels (as result of influence from another language) but they have been dropped off standard language rather quickly, however are still present in many dialects. Vowels Monophthongs Diphthongs Additionally, Begonian employs the following diphthongs: Allophony #/ɨ/ has the allophone ʉ after sounds with a labialized quality. #Nasal consonants cause the preceding vowels to be nasalized. #An unrounded vowel is rounded if it directly precedes a rounded one. And vice versa. #/ɒ/ is in free variation with ɔ. #The slashes indicate there are two main dialectal realizations. Some dialects reduce the diphthongs to its second vowel. #Open-class words can have (phonemic) pitch accent on their first syllable in the root. It’s usually a rising-falling tone and is applied to ca. 5-10% of all words. #/æ/ at the beginning of a word is written as . Unstressed Position Syllable structure ©©CV/VC/CVC©; V ~ any mono- or diphthong, C ~ any consonant (semi-vowels included) Phonotactical restrictions */k/ may not appear in both onset and coda, same for /l/ if in the last syllable. In this case, also the orthographic representation is adapted. *Any cluster consisiting of more than one dental/alveolar/post-alveolar/palato-alveolar fricative is forbidden. *All phonemes except for l̥, xw and h can appear word-terminally. Allowed word-initial CCC clusters *Fricative-Plosive-Liquid *Plosive-Fricative-/j, ʋ/ *Fricative-Nasal-/j/ *Plosive-Liquid-/j/ (unless /dl, tl/) Geminates < p, t, k, m, n, r > appear geminate in writing if affix sequence were to produce such forms, all other sounds are represented with one letter in writing, if that happens. (Pro) Nouns Declension Declension of the noun ,khɒ~m̥p’juthəɾ #The declension depends on whether the nucleus of the last syllable in the root is front (then the blue endings apply) or back (then the green endings apply.) If the ending contains only central vowels, no differentiation is made. #Benefactive is becoming increasingly archaic and can be replaced by the dative. #Begonian differentiates between dual and plural (more than 2). -'h(é)'- is the duality marker, while -'þ'- is the plurality marker. #Begonian is an ergative language – meaning that a suffix (here: -'eg') has to be added to signalize that the following verb is (di)transitive. Vowel Harmony If the root of the last syllable in the root contains /a/ or /ɨ/ the choice which of the two sets of endings to use is free. Morphonological rules *RM = monophthong in the root *RD = diphthong in the root *V = encompasses both mono- and diphthongs *AM/AD = mono-/diphthong in an affix *SM/SD = mono-/diphthong in a suffix Possession Words like “my”, “your”, etc. are expressed in suffixes: If possession and case markers combine, possession markers precede the case markers, e.g.: without my two computers: kåmpjuter-et-hé-ned vs. without our (two) computer: kåmpjuter-ét-ned vs. without our (two) two computers: kåmpjuter-ét-hé-ned Stress/Prosodic Features Stress is usually conveyed with a rising, or rising/falling tone, depending on the speaker: #In words with three syllables or fewer, there’s always slight stress on the first syllable. #In words with more than three syllables, the first and fourth syllable are being stressed. #In clusters of affixes, the first syllable is being stressed, independently of where stress is placed in the root of the word: *SW1-SW2-SF1-SF2 would have its stress on the first and third syllable *SW1-SW2-SW3-SW4-SW5-SF1-SF2 on the first, fourth and sixth *SF1-SF2-SW1-SW2-SF1-SF2-SF3 on the first, third and fifth (SW = syllable in the root, SF = syllable in the affix cluster.) Aspiration #Can only fall on /p, t, ȶ, k/ or the correspondent affricates. #First /p, t, ȶ, k/ of a word is preaspirated, unless it is in the onset of a stressed syllable (which is when it it (post)aspirated) or in the coda of the last syllable (which is where there’s no aspiration at all). #If any of the four mentioned sounds appear together with another consonant, aspiration is blocked altogether. #Preaspiration and non-aspiration are always in alternation: < tata > would be thata, < tatata > would be thatahta, < natata > would be nahtata, < natatat > would be nahtatat, < nanatat > would be nanahtat, <''' 'na'tana'ta'tat > would be nahtanathatat, < '''ta'tanta'ta'tata > would be thatantathatahta. Bold signalizes stressed syllables. #Additional < h > changes the aspiration sequence: While < natatat > would be nahtatat, < natahtat > would be natahtat. #Preaspiration can’t fall on syllables with /h/ in the onset. Pronominal Pronouns Possibility 1 #Differentiation between singular and dual only in spelling. #No differentiation between singular and dual. #No differentiation in gender. #"Ád" is used to refer exclusively to syntactic information like statements, questions, etc and intangible things. Tangible inanimate objects would be referred to with “egis”. (Abstract/Non-Abstract Distinction) Begonian further gives the possibility to differentiate between inclusive and exclusive “we”: Inclusive “we”/vílþa is the standard usage, to express that the speaker himself is not included, add the postposition: “mæsvned”, which in total means as much as “We without me”. Declension of pronominal pronouns: Declension of personal pronouns do not follow the vowel harmony behind the declension of open class words. This also adds a second possibility to express possession: kåmpjuterníd vs. kåmpjuter tuvín (=your computer). Though the second version sounds a bit old-fashioned and isn’t really used by younger speakers. Negation is yielded by prefixing “é-“ to whichever part of the sentence should be negated (negation on the verb is unmarked); however negated personal pronouns may be irregular and have their own negated forms: Múkoeg vøgorakpél. ˈʋø.jʊˌɾax.pɛæ̯l NEG.1-ERG eat-(3.IO)-PST-SG-1 múk-eg vøgo-rak-p-é-l = It wasn’t me, who ate it. '' vs. unmarked: '''Mæsveg évøgorakpél.' 1-ERG NEG-eat-(3.IO)-PST-SG-1 mæsv-eg é-vøgo-rak-p-é-l = I didn’t eat it. '' '''Naiddeg néni ṡordpak.' ˈnɛæ̯.ni ˈɕor.pɐk 3-ERG NEG.3.ABSTR-ACC work_on/improve-PST-SG-3 naidd-eg nén-i ṡord-p-a-k = It wasn’t that, what he improved. = He didn’t improve ''that.'' Also, Næniusk has a specific word for “Me and him/her, the person being addressed excluded” (muin) as opposed to “Me and you, the person being addressed included” (mæriň): Muineg hárani ápy púmytparhak. ˈhaʊ̯.ɾaˌni ˈɦaʊ̯.ʰpy ˈpʰʊu̯.mys.paɾˌhak 1.and.3-ERG film-ACC NDEF watch=like-DUAL-SG-3 muin-eg hárany-i ápy púmyt=par-h-ak = We (me and him/her) enjoy watching films. Possibility 2 This becomes relevant in sentences with a simple direct (dative) and/or indirect (accusative) object. In this case pronominal pronouns may be represented as simple affixes put ahead of the affixes of verb conjugation: (Naiddeg) mæsvi kýdžak. (3SG-ERG) 1SG-ACC hear-(3SG.PRES) Naidd-0-eg mæsv-0-i kýdž-ak. = He hears me. means the same as - simply: Kýdžrak. hear-(1SG-ACC)-(3SG.PRES) Kýdž-r(a)-ak. This method can be used for the other cases than Dative/Accusative aswell: Ixabatairakuivak. buy-(1.DO-PL-BENE)-(3.IO)-PROG-SG-3 ixa-bat-a-i-rak-iv-a-k = He is buying it for us. Relative pronouns Relative pronouns have to be put at the very ending of a subordinate clause (optionally initiated by the particle ak) and follow the same declension as nouns: Jást pek ak ómi banrakpél éstæn sísk. DEM man-ABS (PART) DEM-ACC make-(3.ACC.IO)-PST-SG-1 REL-INSTR be.3.SG jást pek-0 (ak) óm-i ban-rak-p-é-l ést-æn sísk. = This is the man with whom I’ve made this. Demonstrative pronouns There is no differentiation between whether the object being referred to is close to the speaker or further away. <''Óm'' (ómeg, ómín, …)> can be used to refer to objects from previous sentences or objects that are very far away (comparable to German “jene”). Moreover, it serves as contrast: Jást cútjevát émvátparól... hrak én'óm' cútjevát. ˈt͡sʊu̯.ʰt̠ʲɪˌʋaʊ̯ˈt‿ɛæ̯.mæ.ʋaʊ̯ʰtˌpʰa.ɾɔʊ̯l | hraˈk‿ɛæ̯.nɔ̃ʊ̯̃m ˈt͡sʊu̯.ʰt̠ʲɪˌʋaʊ̯t DEM park-PERL go_about=like-SG-1 | but NEG-DEM park-PERL jást cútje-vát émvát=par-ó-l | hrak é-óm cútje-vát = I enjoy walking through '''this' park... but not through that one (park).'' Numbers & Quantifiers Begonian employs a base-8 number system: Nowadays it is usual to employ loanwords for common number terms like million (miljon), billion (miljar) or trillion (biljon). Objects are in singular number with "yt", "ytuň", "ytåt", etc., in dual number with "có", "cúň", "coåt" etc. and in plural number with any other number, including zero (akoén). Definiteness To express indefiniteness add the particle “ápy” (optional): The computer: /kåmpjuter/ A computer: /kåmpjuter ápy/ Ápy is used when one wants to refer to something in general (e.g. as in “I love cats (ápy).”) or in a similar matter the indefinite article is used in English, but not as frequently: The object(s) referred to need to be even “more indefinite”.* *really no idea how to explain that one more appropriately. Verbs Verbs can begin and end with any phoneme, as long as the phonotactical rules aren’t breached. Basically it’s not possible to tell verbs apart from nouns in isolation. Non-Finite Forms However, there are certain prefixes speakers can employ to signalize that he is using certain non-finite forms: e.g. for ’khʌtaɪ̯ (grow, increase – intrans.), ’ɾizɐn (sit) Again, one has to differentiate two different sets of prefixes that are used depending on whether it’s surrounded by front or back vowels. Conjugation Agglutinative Conjugation Present Indicative Basic verb conjugation in the ''present tense (indicative)'' works as follows: Indicative is used whenever something is likely to happen, happens regularly, or happens at the moment. When two vowels clash, the vowel of the root wins. Present Irrealis Conjugation in the ''irrealis mode – presens'': The irrealis marker is –'š'. This mode is used whenever one wants to express that one hopes/fears for something to happen, or would do something, thinks something is unlikely/impossible, or he’s not entirely sure whether something is to happen, or there’s not sufficient information etc. Which affix to employ depends on whether it is surrounded by front or back vowels. In the dual versions, is pronounced as /x/. Immediate Past Indicative PST.IMMEDIATE is -'p'- in singular and -'þ'- for dual and plural. For this tense, the dual number is unmarked. Remote Past Indicative Irregular verbs ja (= to be) and goelja '''(= to have) have their own conjugation – for presens/indicative: Note that a number of intransitive verbs have '''irregular past stems: The conjugation for these remains the same throughout, even when the past marker -p/þ- becomes redundant. Immediate/Remote Distinction Basically, immediate past is used when the the action referred to has happened not too long before and still has consequences until speaker’s time. However, the definition of “not too long” is relative: One uses the immediate past to express that one thinks something happened not too long ago, so for the sentence: “The last big war happened (only) 1000 years ago.” You would want to use the immediate past, when you think 1000 years is not much time in this case – or another example: “Dinosaurs have gone extinct (only) 65 mil. years ago.” …whereas one uses the remote past to express something happened a long time ago in relation to the context: “Man, it’s been over 50 years since Schalke 04 last won the German championsship.” --> would warrant for the usage of the remote past, even though 50-odd years is by far not as long a time span as 1000 years or 65 million years. To make things more drastic: “I’ve already come home 3 hours ago (instead of, let’s say, 1 hour as expected).” --> would also warrant for the usage of the remote past. Apart from a very few cases, you would never produce an ungrammtical sentence if you wrongly used the other past tense than intended, it’s just you’d express something else. In sentences where more than one actions are being described and one happened before the other, you have to use the remote past for the former action and immediate past for the latter. Immediate Past Irrealis The plural marker for this tense/mood is -'á'-. Remote Past Irrealis Immediate Future 1Note that in these cases, vowel assimilation does not apply. Also the future tense is special in that fusional endings are applied. Distant Future The rule behind the usage of the two future forms is similar to that of the past forms – if something happens soon in relation to the context, use the immediate form, otherwise use the distant form. Periphrastic Conjugation Mæsveg pekui pújemél. 1-ERG man-ACC see-SG-1 mæsv-eg pek-i pújem-é-l = I see the man. means the same as: Mæsveg pekui (ó)pújem ikrak. 1-ERG man-ACC (PRES)-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i (ó)-pújem ik-rak The auxiliary verbs in PPVA are always in the order Agent-Direct Object-Indirect Object: Mæsveg poáta iktårsak. ˈpʰo.aʊ̯.ʰtɐ ˈix.tɒɾˌsak 1-ERG PST-INF-give AUX.(1.SG.ERG-3.DO.DUAL-3.IO.SG.ABSTR) mæsv-eg p-o-áta ik-tår-sak = I have given it to them two. TAM Tense/Aspect/Mood affixes are added to the non-finite part of this conjugation: Mæsveg pekui pópújem ikrak. 1-ERG man-ACC PST-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i pó-pújem ik-rak = I saw the man. Mæsveg pekui stópújem ikrak. 1-ERG man-ACC FUT-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i stó-pújem ik-rak = I will see the man. Mæsveg pekui pújemiv ikrak. 1-ERG man-ACC see.INF-'PROG' AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i pújem-'iv' ik-rak = I am seeing the man. Note that in PPVA the immediate/remote distinction for future and past is lost. Usage *The periphrastic alternative is preferred in sentences without or only with one subordinate clause, whereas the agglutinative alternative is found more frequently in more complicated sentences. *Periphrastic conjugation cannot be used in intransitive sentences. Negation In order to negate verb, just add /é(n)-/: /rizanél/ --> /érizanél, érizanýr/, ... Imperative There are three degrees of imperative used in colloquial speech: Rizanšýr émbost bjékkuys. Sit-IRR-SG-2 now place-SUPE rizan-š-ý-r émbost bjékka-ys = Please sit down now on this place. ''(most formal: Irrealis Mood) '''Rizanøt émbost bjékkuys.' Sit-2.SG.FUT now place-SUPE rizan-øt émbost bjékka-ys = Sit down on this place now. (less formal: Future Tense) Rizanýr émbost bjékkuys! Sit-SG-2 now place-SUPE rizan-ý-r émbost bjékka-ys = Sit down on this place already! (least formal: Present Tense, Indicative Mood) In sentences with imperatives, the verb goes first in word order. Gerund Gerund ''is formed by adding /-(i)lut-/ to the root of the verb and by adding the same endings as for nouns. /rizanilut kjódza/ ‘ɕɔʊdzɐ (= the sitting boy, Abs.) Aspect 'Ástjini jullapél.' bear-ACC shoot-PST-SG-1 ástjin-i julla-p-é-l ''= I shot the bear (he’s dead now). Ástjini jullapuvél. bear-ACC shoot-PST-PROG-SG-1 ástjin-i julla-p-uv-é-l = I was shooting at the bear (he may or may not be dead). Voice & Valence Begonian employs an antipassive voice: Mæsveg halvadi pujamrakól. 1-ERG cat-ACC see-(3.ACC.IO)-PRS-IND-SG-1 mæsv-eg halvad-i pujam-rak-0-0-ó-l = I see the cat. or: Mæsveg halvadi pujam iþrak. 1-ERG cat-ACC PRS-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg halvad-i 0-pujam iþ-rak = I see the cat. becomes: Mæna pujamjól. 1.ABS see-'AP'-PRS-IND-SG-1 mæna pujam-'ja'-0-0-ó-l = I see. (literally) Passive is formed by inserting the antipassive affix -ja- and deleting the patient of the active phrase - though that doesn't always have to happen, the patient can be added in the causative case - and put after the verb. This poses an exception to the otherwise strict SOV order. If no specfic agent needs to be specified it can be left out and the verb of the sentence is in its correspondent non-finite form plus the antipassive marker. There is another marker -'épo'- which signalizes something happens without the agent's control/volition/intention and works something like a medio-passive marker. Increasing Valence: There are two methods for this, which are used depending on volition: Ak ástjini jullól ekui dágpak. ˈju.ɬɔʊ̯l̴ ˈɦeʰ.ki ˈdaʊ̯x.pɐk PART bear-ACC shoot-SG-1 CNJ-ACC make_do-PST-SG-3 ak ástjin-i julla-ó-l ek-i dág-p-a-k = She made me shoot the bear. (by force/without the object’s volition) Ástjini naiddag julladagpél. bear-ACC 3-CAUS shoot=make_do-PST-SG-3 ástjin-i naidd-dag julla=dag-p-é-l = She made me shoot the bear. (with the object’s volition or consent) Evidentiality Begonian uses a wide array of lexical suffixes. For some verbs, both the incorporated and isolated version have to be learned. Đexmeg pókui ápy pómrešilut ástjini jullahápak/ékjullapak. ˈpʰɔʊ̯.ki ˈɦaʊ̯.ʰpy ˈpʰɔ̃ʊ̯̃m.ɾɪˌʃi.lʏˈt‿aʊ̯.ʍiˌni ˈju.ɬa.haʊ̯ˌpʰak Police-ERG people-ACC NDEF PST-INF-kill-GER bear-ACC shoot=maybe/for_sure-PST-SG-3 ðexme-eg pók-i ápy p-ó-omreš-ilut ástjin-i (ék)-julla-há-p-a-k = The police supposedly/definitely shot the bear who killed people. Halvad ápy iṡukbynvak. cat NDEF be_evil=they_say/society-PL-3 halvad-0 ápy iṡuk-byn-v-ak = They say cats are evil. Ástjini jullabåpél. bear-ACC shoot=must-PST-SG-1 ástjin-i julla=bå-p-é-l = I had to shoot the bear. Túveg ástjini éjullanoidpýr. 2-ERG bear-ACC NEG-shoot=should-PST-SG-2 túv-eg ástjin-i é-julla=noid-p-ý-r = You shouldn’t have shot the bear. Túveg ástjini ékoéjulluvpýr. 2-ERG bear-ACC definitely=NEG-shoot-PROG-PST-SG-2 túv-eg ástjin-i ék-é-julla-uv-p-ý-r = You were definitely not shooting at the bear. / I’m sure you weren't shooting at the bear. Reflexivity & Reciprocality To express reflexivity use "vax, vaxeg, vaxín,..." and add it right next to the subject it’s referring to. This at the same time works as the intensifier myself, yourself, etc. and as reciprocality marker: Mæsveg vaxi lenumítpél. 1-ERG REFL-ACC be_good-INT-PST-SG-1 mæsv-eg vax-i lenu-mít-p-é-l = I improved myself. Mæsveg vax lenumítpél. 1-ERG INT be_good-INT-PST-SG-1 mæna vax lenu-mít-p-é-l = I did the improving myself. PPVA can express reflexivity itself: Mæsveg pélenumít iksaň. 1-ERG PST-INF-be_good-INT AUX.(1.ERG-1.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg p-é-lenu-mít ik-saň = I improved myself. Reciprocality: Mæþeg vaxþí hakþvél. 1.PL-ERG RECP-PL-BENE work-PST-PL-3 mæþ-eg vax-þ-í hak-þ-v-él = We worked for each other. Participles #"p-é-axtam-ilut" (PST-INF-buy-GER) would denote an object which bought (intrans.) in the past. #Likewise, "st-é-axtam-ilut" (FUT-INF-buy-GER) is something that will buy in the future. #"st-é-ik-axtam-ilut" (FUT-INF-ADJZ-buy-GER) denotes something that is to be bought in the future. Adjectives There's no affix or anything of the sort to mark a word as an adjective. Adjectives precede the things they describe and don't take any endings unless they work like nouns and form the head of a phrase. Adverbs Adverbs ''are formed by adding the suffix /-es (front), -os (back)/: /mésto/ (fast, adj.) --> /ésmésto/ (fast, adverb). /-ínus/ can be added to the root of the adjective to express ''similarity: /kágillt/ (king) vs. /kágilltínus/ (king-like) /-mán/ can be added to the root of the adjective to transform it into nouns: /vaḍun/ (play) --> /vaḍunmán/ Comparisons /-mít-/ forms the comparative form of adjectives: /kágilltínusmít/ (more king-like) Vaḍunmánog hjamulu ápy mæsthé'ix' éskágilltínusmít myllnýk. ‘hjã.mʏ,lu ‘ɦaʊ.ʰpy ˈmæst,hɛ.ix ‘ɛæ̯s.kaʊ.ʑil̥,tʰɪ̃ə̯̃.nʏs.mɪə̯t ˈmyɬˌnʏ̃ɵ̯k ball-ACC NDEF 1-DUAL-COMP ADV-king-SEMBL-COMP throw-3SG.PRES Vaḍun-mán-og hjamul-u ápy mæst-hé-ix és-kágillt-ínus-mít myllný-k. = The player throws baseballs more king-like than us two. There’s no separate superlative form – in order to express that someone is the best at something one uses the comparative form without comparing anyone: Vaḍunmánog hjamulu ápy éskágilltínusmít myllnýk. = The player throws baseballs the most king-like. = The player throws baseballs very king-like. (is another possible translation) Equal Comparison Vaḍunmánog hjamulu ápy mæsthé'iut' (= Essive) éskágilltínusmít myllnýk. = The player throws baseballs as '''king-like '''as us two. Note that one is using the comparative form here aswell. Verbal Phrases Lyðet vøgo aeltél ekuix cymít aldżari ixak. friend-(SG-1.POSS) eat.INF can-SG-1 CNJ-COMP more cereal-ACC buy-SG-3 lyði-e-t vøgo aelt-é-l ek-ix cymít aldżar-i ixa-a-k = My friend buys more cereal than I can eat. Degrees Lyðet vøgo aeltél ekuix tesym '''(1)/temeň (2) cymít aldżari ixak.' friend-(SG-1.POSS) eat.INF can-SG-1 CNJ-COMP many/few more cereal-ACC buy-SG-3 lyði-e-t vøgo aelt-é-l ek-ix tesym/temeň cymít aldżar-i ixa-a-k ''= My friend buys much (1)/a little bit (2) more cereal than I can eat. Adjectival Phrases Morphology Inflectional Morphology (Nouns, Adjectives) (to be added) Derivational Morphology Affix sequence Wherever it says "other" the sequence is arbitrary (though usually listed by topic, with the most "important" affix being put as front as possible) For forms of the synthetically formed future tense and irregularly conjugated verb “ja” and “goelja” (to be/to have) the sequence is: Word-Formation The core part of the compund comes after the modifier, which comes in different cases: Other combinations like Noun+Adjective or Verb+Adjective are expressed with at least two separate words. Syntax Begonian is a predominantly head-final/left-branching and head-marking language. Basic word order is strictly SOV 'both for main and subordinate clauses. The objects themselves may be freely scrambled though. Case stacking Instead of adding all the endings to each word, one can choose to leave them away and instead stack them in front of or after the verb... an example: '(1) Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned myllnpak. ' ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋaˌðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪs.nə ˈmyl̥n.pʰak Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ALL admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABE throw-PST-3SG.IND Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-éna urize-e-t-ned mylln-p-ak. ''= The sitting boy threw snow at the cat without my admission. The following sentence has the exact same meaning: (2) Rizaniluteg kjódzog ẋuivi halvad urizet '''énaned '''pémyllny i'þsak'. ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪt ˈɦɛ̃æ̯̃.nã.nə ˈpɛ̃æ̯̃.myl̥.ny ˈɦiθ.sɐk Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ABS admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABS ALL-ABE PST-INF-throw AUX.(3SG.ERG.AN-3SG.ACC) Rizan-ilut-eg kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-0 urize-e-t-0 éna-ned p-é-myllny iþ-sak. It is important to keep the right order in the case marking clusters. The following sentence... Rizaniluteg kjódzog ẋuivi halvad urizet '''nedéna' pémyllny iþsak. ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪt ˈne.ðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ ˈpɛ̃æ̯̃.myl̥.ny ˈɦiθ.sɐk Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ABS admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABS ABE-ALL PST-INF-throw AUX.(3SG.ERG.AN-3SG.ACC) Rizan-ilut-eg kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-0 urize-e-t-0 ned-éna p-é-myllny iþ-sak. ...would translate to: The sitting boy threw snow at my admission without the cat. Negation To negate a sentence prefix é-'' to the verb. To negate special aspects of a sentence add the ''é-'' to whichever word you want to negate: Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned 'é'myllnpak. (= He didn't throw it.) ('É')rizanilut(eg) 'é'kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned émyllnpak. (= Not the boy threw it.) Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi 'é'halvadéna urizetned émyllnpak. (= He didn't throw it to the cat.) Correlatives '''Vílþa ostoň synutmít mévémikiv.' ˈos.tʊn̠ʲ ˈsy.nʏsˌmɪə̯t ˈmɛæ̯.ʋɛæ̠.miˌkʰiʊ̯ 1.PL.ABS that.time often-INT PST.REMOTE-1-PL-go-ABL-PROG vílþa ostoň synut-mít m-é-v-ém-ik-iv = Back then we used to go outside more often. Oxuň átumþét pykoxåtuþk meturþát ópmadpak hékvu smødetik ékappak. ˈpʰy.kʊ.ɣɒˌtʰuθk ˈme.ʰtʏɾˌθaʊ̯t ˈɔʊ̯ɸ.maðˌpʰak ˈhɛæ̯k.ʋʏ ˈsmø.ðɪˌtʰiˈ‿kɛæ̯.ʰkaˌpʰak twelve second-PL-PROL hundred metre-PL-PERL run-PST-SG-3 how head-(SG-1.POSS)-ABL NEG-appear-SG-3 oxuň átum-þ-ét pykoxåtuþk metur-þ-át ópmad-p-a-k hékvu smød-e-t-ik é-kappu-a-k = How he ran 100 metres in 12 seconds is beyond me. Naiddeg étiki hékuíc vøgo iþrak. ˈɦɛæ̯.ʰtiˌki ˈhɛæ̯.kɪə̯t͡s ˈʋø.jʊ ˈiθ.rɐk 3-ERG NEG-chocolate-ACC for_some_reason eat-INF AUX.(3.ERG-3.SG.IO) naidd-eg é-tiki-i hékuíc vøgo iþ-rak = He ate no chocolate for some reason. Questions To form questions, pull the verb to the front and add /há/ right after it: Hvemýr há (túveg) mæsvi? haʊ̯ ˈmæs.ʋaɪ̯ love-SG-2 Q 1-ACC hvem-ý-r há mæsv-i = Do you love me? Áto há néreň túvis újstus toiskvaňi? hau̯ ˈnɛæ̯.ɾɪn̠ʲ ˈtʰʊu̯.ʋis ˈʊu̯js.tʏs ˈtʰʌ.ʍaˌn̠ʲi give-FUT.3.SG Q brother-(SG-3.POSS) 2-DAT exercise-DAT solve-NMLZ-ACC áta-o há nér-e-ň túv-i újst-us toiskve-aň-i = Will her brother give you the solution for the exercise? With verbs conjugated'' periphrastically'' the word order is as follows: Irsaň há hvem (túveg) mæsvi? AUX.(2.ERG-1.IO) Q love.INF 1-ACC ir-saň há hvem mæsv-i = Do you love me? Steiþbesak há áta néreň túvis újstus toiskvaňi? AUX.(FUT-INF-3.ERG-2.SG.DO-3.SG.IO.ABSTR) Q give.INF brother-(SG-3.POSS) 2-DAT exercise-DAT solve-NMLZ-ACC st-é-iþ-bet-sak há áta nér-e-ň túv-is újst-us toiskve-aň-i = Will her brother give you the solution for the exercise? Questions are answered either by replying with “'Vjédi'” (Yes) or “'Næg'” (No) Myllnpak hávjédi rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetæned? Would imply the speakers expects a “yes” as answer. H-Questions: Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned myllný --> Myllnpak hággui rizaniluteg kjódzog halvadéna urizetned? (= What did the boy throw... ?) Myllnpak hákbo rizaniluteg kjódzog halvadéna urizezæned? (=When did he do it?) Myllnpak hákoéna ... ? (=Where/To whose direction did he throw it?) Myllnpak hágganed ...? (=Without what did he throw it?) Myllnpak hákoeg ...? (=Who threw the snow to the cat w/o my admission?) Jullapak hákoec/hákbo/hákvu ðexmeg pókui ápy pómrešilut ástjini? shoot-PST-SG-3 Q police-ERG people-ACC NDEF PST-INF-kill-GER bear-ACC julla-p-a-k hákoec/hákbo/hákvu ðexme-eg pók-i ápy p-ó-omreš-ilut ástjin-i = Where/When/How did the police shoot the people-killing bear? '' 'Áto hákbo néreň túvis újstus toiskvaňi?' give-FUT.3.SG Q brother-(SG-3.POSS) 2-DAT exercise-DAT solve-NMLZ-ACC át-o hákbo nér-e-ň túv-i újst-us toiskve-aň-i ''= When will her brother give you the solution for the exercise? Relative Clauses Relative clauses are initiated using ak '''and closed by ésta'''/áti (abstract) and directly precede the referent. Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna ak naiddeg lá sš pak ésti urizetned myllnpak. ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋaˌðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ ak ˈnaɪ̯.də ˈlaʊ̯.ʃpʰak ˈɛæ̯s.ti ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪs.nə ˈmyl̥n.pʰak Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ALL REL 3SG-ERG need-IRR-PST-SG-3 REL-ACC admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABE throw-PST-SG-3 Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-éna ak naidd-eg las-š-p-a-k ést-i urize-e-t-ned mylln-p-a-k = The sitting boy threw snow at the cat without my admission, which he would have needed. Object relative clauses are handled by using the causative case for the relative pronoun and the suffixing the antipassive marker “ja” to the verb within the clause: Pak choipjak éstadag óndez karmí tømak. ˈxʌ.ʰpjɐk ˈɛæ̯s.taˌda ˈɔ̃ʊ̯̃n.dɪz ˈkʰaɾ.mɪə̃ ˈtʰø.mɐk pak-0 choip-ja-a-k ésta-dag óndez-0 karma-í tøm-a-k man-ABS catch-AP-SG-3 REL-CAUS fish-ABS deity-BENE taste-SG-3 = The fish caught by the man tastes excellent. Relative clauses that aren’t necessary for the understanding of a sentence or just serve as an aftercomment may follow its referent: Nænimín symít brán "Byrnu" žmedak, éstéc pykségjabæstaň yt éþamuk ṭakoeménþa jaþa. ˈsy.mɪə̯t bʀãʊ̯̃n ˈbyɾ.nʏ ˈʒme.ðɐk ˈɛæ̯s.tɛæ̯t͡s ˈpyʰk.sɛæ̯.ʑaˌbæs.tɐ̃.n‿yˈt‿ɛæ̯.θaˌmuk ˈc̟a.ʰkẽ.mɛ̃æ̯̃nˌθa ˈja.θɐ Begonia-SG-GEN big-INT-ABS city-ABS Byrnu-ABS be_called-PRES-IND-3SG, REL-SG-INESS (64+6)*8192 one-SG-ABL eye-SG-ABL inhabitant-PL-ABS to_be.3PL.PRES Nænim-Ø-ín sy(m)-mít-Ø brán-Ø "Byrnu"-Ø żmed-Ø-Ø-ak, ést-Ø-éc (pyk+ségja)*bæstaň yt-Ø-Ø éþam-Ø-uk ṭakoemén-þ-a jaþa = The biggest city in Begonia is called "Byrnu", where there are about 573440 inhabitants. Dependent Phrases Similar to relative clauses, dependent phrases are initiated with the particle ak and closed by ek+case suffix: Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ak naiddeg (ómeg) ád ématšpak ekui dinjak. ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ak ˈnaɪ.də aʊ̯ð ˈɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʃpɐk ˈeʰ.ki ˈdĩ.ȵɐk Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG say-3SG, NEG-do-PST-SG-3 CNJ 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN CNJ-ACC Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ak naidd-eg ád é-mat-š-p-a-k ek(u)-i dinja-k = The boy said, that he didn’t do it. In the example above, the subordinate phrase is the object of the whole sentence, so you have to add the corresponding ending /-i/ to the subordinate conjunction. If the subordinate phrase is the subject of the sentence, it is only initiated by ek. Furthermore, the subject of the subject phrase has to be repeated in the subsequent phrase: Ek naiddeg ád ématýnpak, ád évoryk. ‘naɪ̯.də ‘aʊð ‘ɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʏ̃ɵ̯̃n.pɐk aʊ̯ð 'ɛæ̯.ʋʊ,ɾysk CNJ-'ABS' 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN NEG-do-PST-3SG, 3.ABS.INAN NEG-be_true-3SG Ek-0 naidd-eg ád é-matýn-p-ak, ád é-vory-k. = That (Abs.) he didn’t do it, is not true. Ekoeg naiddeg ád ématýnpak, ád naiddi palltapak. ‘naɪ̯.də ‘aʊð ‘ɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʏ̃ɵ̯̃n.pɐk aʊ̯ð ˈnaɪ̯.di ˈphaɬ.taˌpʰak CNJ-'ERG' 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN NEG-do-PST-3SG, 3.ABS.INAN 3-ACC shock-PST-3SG Ek(o)-eg naidd-eg ád é-matýn-p-ak, ád naidd-i pallta-p-ak = That (Erg.) he didn’t do it, shocked her. Participle Constructions ~ including verbal adjectives aren't allowed and have to paraphrased using a relative clause: *Mæsvdag ikpjukui halvad váčuvak. ˈix.pjʏ.ʰkɨ ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈʋaʊ̯.ʰt͡ʃʏˌʋak 1-CAUS ADJZ-feed cat-ABS sleep-PROG-SG-3 mæsv-dag ik-pjukui halvad-0 váč-uv-a-k = The by me fed cat is sleeping. (literally) The asterisk denotes the sentence as grammatically unacceptable. (Ak) pjukuipél ésti halvad váčuvak. ˈpju.ʰkɨˌpʰɛæ̯l ˈɛæ̯s.ti ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈʋaʊ̯.ʰt͡ʃʏˌʋak PART feed-PST-SG-1 REL-ACC cat-ABS sleep-PROG-SG-3 ak pjukui-p-é-l ést-i halvad-0 váč-uv-a-k = The cat (that) I fed is sleeping. Conjunctions List of some of the most important subordinate conjunctions: Some conjunctions may also be incorporated into the verb under the category "other suffixes". Subordinate clauses with such verbs are initiated with ák. The isolating alternative is primarily used when there's only one subordinate clause in a sentence, otherwise the incorporating alternative is preferred. Halvadut épjukuirakpak sápat júmak. ˈsaʊ̯.ʰpɐt ˈjʊu̯.mɐk cat-(PL-1.POSS) NEG-feed-(3.ACC.IO)-PST-SG-3 because be_evil-SG-3 halvad-u-t é-pjukui-rak-p-a-k sápat júm-a-k = Our cat is mad, because he didn’t feed her. Horatiusún áčyskþa áþkovak ak ómeg, ák hrak Kornelia ómþys ésísksap, énakparsáxak. ˈaʊ̯θ.kʊˌʋa.kɐ ˈk‿ɔ̃ʊ̯̃.mə aʊ̯k hrak ˈkor.nɪ.ʎ̟ɐ ˈɔ̃ʊ̯̃m.θyˈs‿ɛæ̯.sɪə̯skˌsaʊ̯p ˈɦɛæ.nax.parˌsaʊ̯.ɣɐk Horatius-GEN dream-PL-ABS be_beautiful-PL-3 CONJ DEM-ERG CONJ but Kornelia-ABS DEM-PL-INESS NEG-be.3.SG=because NEG-dummy=like-3.PL.IO.ABSTR-SG-3 Horatius-ún áčysk-þa-0 áþko-v-ak, ak óm-eg , ák hrak Kornelia-0 óm-þ-ys é-sísk=sap é-ak=par-sák-a-k. = Horatius' dreams are beautiful, but he does not like them because Cornelia is not in them. Verbal constructions Džon ak køndecéna éṡytivi ekui žapystak. CNJ test-ALL INF-learn CNJ-ACC prepare-SG-3 Džon-0 ak køndec-éna é-ṡytivi ek-i žapyst-a-k. = John prepares to learn for the test. to-clauses are formed by implementing subordinate clauses. This is, unless the subclause only consists of a single non-finite form, where that can be put next to the finite form: Džon éṡytivi žapystak. INF-learn prepare-SG-3 Džon-0 é-ṡytivi žapyst-a-k. = John prepares to learn Topic Marking To stress a certain aspect of the sentence, add the particle ak next to the word in quesion: (1) Ak mja halvadi pjukuipak''' ekui''' pédinja iþsaň. mja ˈhal.ʋaˌði ˈpju.ʰkɨˌpʰak ˈeʰki ˈpʰɛæ̯.ðãɪ̯̃.ȵɐ ˈiθ.sɐ̃ȵ SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-3SG CNJ-ACC PST-INF-say AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) Ak mja halvad-i pjukui-p-ak ek(u)-i p-é--dinja iþ-saň. (= He told me, that he fed the cat.) (2) Ak mja halvadi ak pjukuipak''' ekui''' pédinja iþsaň. SAME cat-ACC TOP feed-PST-3SG CNJ-ACC INF-PST-say AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) (= He told me, that it was the cat that he fed.) (3) Ak mja halvadi pjukuipak ak''' ekui''' pédinja iþsaň. SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-3SG TOP CNJ-ACC INF-PST-say AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) (= He told me, that it was that he fed the cat.) (1) is the unmarked situation. If a certain aspect of the subordinate clause is stressed use the “neutral” conjuncion /ak/ and place ekui after the word which forms the focus. It is also possible to include the topic particle into the affix cluster to stress certain grammatical information: (4) Ak mja halvadi pjukuipaxak''' ekui''' pédinja iþsaň. SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-TOP-3SG CNJ-ACC INF-PST-say AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) (= He told me, that it was that he fed the cat at some point in the past.) Note that the surface representation in this case is < ax >, because /k/ is not allowed in both onset and coda. Copulae Predicative adjectives can also work like verbs, just add the correspondent verb affixes: Jást yzlor épógyaxak. ˈyz.lʊɾ ˈɛæ̯.ʰpɔʊ̯.ʑa,xak DEM-ABS overview-ABS NEG-be_boring-3SG.PRES Jást-0 yzlor-0 é-pógyak-ak = This overview is not boring. (yeah right...) For nouns, the verb “ja” (to be) functions as copula. Pro-Drop Pronouns that aren't necessary to carry across the meaning of a sentence may be dropped: Mæsveg pózhasi évøltrapél. 1-ERG wine-ACC NEG-drink-PST-SG-1 mæsv-eg pózhas-i é-vøltra-p-é-l = I didn’t drink wine. --> Pózhasi évøltrapél. wine-ACC NEG-drink-PST-SG-1 pózhas-i é-vøltra-p-é-l General Statements ~ are handled with the corresponding non-finite verb forms: Ak boizur éstec ikke. Émšhél hjémik. ˈbʌ.zʏr ˈɛæ̯s.tɪt͡s ˈɦi.ʰkɪ || ˈɛæ̯m.ʃxɛæ̯l ˈɕɛæ̯.mik PART live-SG-2 REL-INESS be_healthy.INF || go-IRR-DUAL-1 house-ABL ak boizu-0-r ést-ec ikke || ém-š-h-él hjém-ik = Where you live, one is healthy/people are healthy. Let’s go outside. Existential clauses ~ are handled with the verb “ja” (to be): Temeň čoga ábarys ápy sísk. ˈt͡ʃo.ɰɐ ˈɦaʊ̯.βaˌɾyˈs‿aʊ̯ʰ.py ˈsɪə̯sk few water-ABS desert-INESS NDEF to_be.SG.3 temeň čoga-0 ábar-ys ápy sísk = There is only little (drinking) water in deserts. Ambiguities In phrases where more than one 'person is being referred to, it is possible to add markers to avoid ambiguities: ''Naiddegap mæsvi palltavyk, naiddegep mæsvi épalltavyk. Jástegap / Jástegoep... = The one person shocks me, the other doesn’t. The former / The latter ... However one can replace “naiddegap” by “jásteg” and “naiddegep” by “ómeg” and have the problem put aside. (1) Džonog þá'''p Meliseg oðkami'ep' ixóppak, hrak ep skænytvøkpak. θaʊ̯p ˈme.laɪ̯.sɪ ˈoð.kãˌmi.ɪp ˈix.ɔʊ̯ˌpʰak hɾak eʰp ˈskæ̃.nyʰtˌʋøx.pɐk [John-ERG and-'DET' Melissa-ERG ticket-ACC-'DET' buy=want-PST-3PL, but DET be_sold out-all-PST-3PL Džon-og(g) þá-p Melis-eg(g)-ap oðkam-i-ep ix-óp-p-ak, hrak ep skænyt-vøk-p-ak. John and Melissa(-'''ap') wanted to buy concert tickets(-'ep'), but they(-'ep') were all sold out.'' -ep signifies in this case, that the subject of the subclause is not identical with the one in the main phrase. Let’s add a second sentence: (2) They instead went to the people in the bar. What is “they” referring to? In Begonian, one can add “-ap” to clearify, that John and Melissa are the subject of the sentence, and “-ep” for the tickets to be the subject. Since there are no separate pronomina for masculine/feminine, these markers come in handy very often. Another example: There is no obligation to use “-ap” and “-ep” for markers, one could use whatever s/he wants, as long as everything remains pragmatical. Tuveg texí póruned tádzivúr. 2-ERG child-BENE car-ABESS look_after-PROG-SG-2 tuv-eg tex-í póru-ned tádze-iv-ú-r = looking after a child without a car. “Póruned” modifies the verb: He does the looking after without a car. Tuveg póruned texí tádzivúr. 2-ERG car-ABESS child-BENE look_after-PROG-SG-2 tuv-eg póru-ned tex-í tádze-iv-ú-r = You’re looking a child without a car. “Póruned” is in the same phrase as “texí” and thus modifies that. Tuveg 1 texí 2 póruned 3 tádzivúr. (járap) 2-ERG car-ABESS child-BENE look_after-PROG-SG-2 tuv-eg 1 tex-í 2 póru-ned 3 tádze-iv-ú-r = You’re looking after a child without a car today. When further complicated, f.e. with a temporal adverb “járap” (today): #He is looking after the child on that day (but after others on other days) #He is looking after the child, but for this specific day without a car. #He is looking after the child on that day. (but may do something else on other days) Switch Reference Also, one has the possibility to add the postposition “nén” to signify, that an object of one part of a sentence is not identical with that of the other “I am working a book, he’s working on a book “nén”: Jálkamaňæde ónókjola kuymne iktarsak, toňix naiddinén hjeména pryhaṭpél. ˈɔʊ̯nɔʊ̯ɕʊˌla ˈkʰỹmnə 'ix.taˌsɐk ˈtʰõɲ̟aɪ̯x̟ ˈnaɪ̯dĩnɛ̃æ̯̃n ˈhjẽmɛ̃æ̯̃nɐ ˈpɾyhaɕpɛæ̯l [Mathematics-INSTR INF-teach try AUX.(1SG-3SG.AN.DO-3SG.INAN.IO), then 3SG-ACC-'DIFF' home-ALL drive-PST-1SG] Jálkamaň-æde ó-nókjola kuymne ik-tar-sak, toňix naidd-i-nén hjem-éna pryhaṭ-p-eli. = I tried to teach him mathematics, later I drove him (another ‘him’) home. The opposite is also possible with the postposition “mja”: Jálkamaňæde ónókjola kuymne iktarsak, toňix naiddimja hjeména pryhaṭpél. ˈɔʊ̯nɔʊ̯ɕʊˌla ˈkʰỹmnə 'ix.taˌsɐk ˈtʰõɲ̟aɪ̯x̟ ˈnaɪ̯dĩmjɐ ˈhjẽmɛ̃æ̯̃nɐ ˈpɾyhaɕpɛæ̯l [Mathematics-INSTR INF-teach try AUX.(1SG-3SG.AN.DO-3SG.INAN.IO), then 3SG-ACC-'SAME' home-ALL drive-PST-1SG] = I tried to teach him mathematics, later I drove him (the same ‘him’) home. If the subject of the main and subordinate phrase is identical, one can use /óm, ómeg, .../ in the subordinate phrase aswell: Jálkamaňæde ónókjola kuymne iktarsak, toňix 'ómi hjeména pryhaṭpél.'' Dialectal Realizations Phonology Dialects may or may not: #Alveolo-palatal series shifts into true palatal. This never happens without also backing the velar series a bit, most frequently in the environment of back vowels. #Preaspirated consonants are dropped and instead the preceding vowel is devoiced. #Coda devoicing. #Syncope of unpronounced syllables with ə or ɐ. # is pronounced as nasal) unvoiced, examples: < hr > ɾ̥, < hm > m̥, etc. #Dropping nasals after vowels and just nasalizing those preceding vowels instead. #Pharyngealization between back vowels. #Replacing /h/ with its pharyngeal counterpart ħ when /h/ appears together with another consonant in onset/coda. #Diphthongs lose their second component + compensatory lengthening: Among other also these shifts: Grammar #The dual-affix -h- is pronounced χ. #Polypersonal verb agreement is used much more frequently. Lexicon #næma (standard) vs. tjók (dialectal): house #køṡum (standard) vs. eþóm (dialectal): school Sample text '''Pók ápy sydvøxak þá étuloin þáp murkoin ápy ésøppym dåmínpak. Naiddeg chlahi þá tuxruňu míčur iþråk þá hjórrapaňois vaxu bynimnoidak. ˈsyd.ʋœˌxak θaʊ̯ ˈɦɛæ̯.tʏˌlʌ̃n θaʊ̯p ˈmuɾ.kʌ̃ˈn‿aʊ̯ʰpy ˈɦɛæ̯.sœ.ʰpỹm ˈdɒ̃.mɪə̯nˌpʰak || ˈnaɪ̯.də ˈxla.haɪ̯ θaʊ̯ ˈtʰux.ɾʏ̃ˌȵu ˈmɪə̯.ʰt͡ʃʏɾ ˈiθ.rɒk θaʊ̯ ˈɕɔʊ̯.ra.ʰpãˌȵʌs ˈʋa.ɣʏ ˈbỹ.naɪ̯mˌnʌ.dɐk human NDEF be_free=all-SG-3 and dignity-INSTR and-INCL right-INSTR NDEF ADV-equal be_born-PST-SG-3 || 3-ERG knowledge-ACC and reason-ACC be_gifted_at.INF AUX.(3.ERG-3.ACC.IO.DUAL) and fraternity-SUBESS REFL-ACC treat=should-SG-3 pók ápy sydd=vøx-a-k þá étul-oin þá-p murk-oin ápy és-øppym dåmín-p-a-k || Naidd-eg chlah-i þá tuxruň-u míčur iþ-råk þá hjórrapaň-ois vax-u bynim=noid-a-k. = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.